Research proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 5

Research proposal - Essay Example The Ebola epidemic provides an example of the impact of infectious diseases on public health (Soule, Memish, & Malani, 2012). Other highly infectious diseases, such as the H1N1 Swine Flu and SARS virus also pose a risk to public health because they can spread very quickly. The epidemic indicated that the world is unprepared with regard to handling highly infectious diseases properly. The other issue with regard to the infectious diseases is that the world has become borderless as people can travel from one corner the world to the other within 24 hours; thus, they can aid the spread of communicable diseases. Considering that some of these viruses inhabit the human body for a long period before the manifestation of symptoms, it is possible that individuals can carry and infect others with the viruses as they travel. As a result, new outbreaks are likely to be reported in different parts of the world making any prevention strategies difficult. According to the World Health Organization (2006), such infections can easily lead to pandemics killing millions of people throughout the world within a very short time. The only advantage of infections such as Ebola is that the transmission of the virus from the infected person to the healthy person does not start until the symptoms are manifest. However, some of the viruses are lethal, and the transmission from an infected to a healthy person occurs within minutes. Examples include the SARS and the H1N1 Swine Flu viruses, which are transmitted prior to the manifestation of the symptoms (Kocik, Janiak, & Negut, 2012). It is therefore important to d etermine the level of preparedness of the health care professionals with to the handling of infectious diseases. Furthermore, the level of preparedness of the health care sectors in handling infectious diseases determines the morbidity and mortality rates of

Over Representation of African American Students in the Special Education System. Essay Example for Free

Over Representation of African American Students in the Special Education System. Essay Introduction My current school has special education roster of 32 students in self contain with over 90% of the students being African-American. This paper will address the large number African-American students in the special education system. Attention will be focus on the social economic roles that play a part in placement. When done properly and in appropriate perspective, special education is beneficial for students with a real disability, but special education services are inappropriate when a student receives it when it is not needed. African-American students are being placed in the special education system at an alarming rate. They are being labeled with disabilities at ages as early as five years old, because they progress slower than the rest of the class, bias in assessment instrument, discrimination in society reflected in the school or they may present some behavior issue. Special education is appropriate placement for students with real disabilities, but minority blacks are being disproportionately place in special education. This unjust placement at early ages are causing these children to be stereotyped as slow learners causing low self esteem and low achievement rate during and after school. This is a major problem when addressing special education for African Americans. Many attempts have been made to solve the issues but there have been no satisfactory results. Theoretical Framework The disproportionate representation of African-Americans students in the special education system is well documented. This misrepresentation has been problematic since the inception of the special education program. This paper will probe the reasons many of these students have been categorized with various type of learning disabilities or emotional disturbances. These labels given to students have proven to be life altering to students given incorrect placement. Lawsuits have been filed charging that placements of high numbers of African American, especially male, in special education classes has been a tool for resisting court ordered desegregation (Harry and Anderson, 1992). In many instances there is a lack of or unwillingness to properly place African American students because of educators in some systems being culturally diverse. Secondly there is a lot of mistrust between educators and parents. Many parents don’t seek appropriate services or disagree with educational placement because they feel they will be see as ignorant or â€Å"talked down† to by teachers and administrators placing their children in special education. This paper will also discuss the long term effects that hinder students educational progress as well as there adult life. Once placed in many special education programs student may not be in line to receive a high school diploma. Many students have difficulties in the community getting jobs because employers feel they will be slower then there counterparts that received a regular education. This then snowballs into the child being placed in a lower social economic bracket because of the type of employment they will have to settle for in adulthood. African-American students are disproportionally placed in the special education system around the country. This misrepresentation is may be due to teacher ineffectiveness. Improving teachers’ capacity to provide culturally responsive instruction to African American students is like to improve student learning ability (Darling-Hammond, 2004). New teachers must meet a vigorous undergraduate program to become certified they continue to graduate enable to effectively teach African American students. Many exit program with a misconception of black students. They think that the African American students are not as smart as other races. The purpose of this study is to prove there is a misrepresentation of African American students in special education. I also plan to illustrate the problem of disproportionate representation of African American students in special education is not just a special education problem issue or concern but, instead, must be viewed in the context as it refers to racism in the whole educational system. I will discuss how racism contributes to and maintains disproportionality in special education by (a) insufficiently funding schools attended primarily by African American and poor children: (b) employing culturally inappropriate and unresponsive curriculum; (c) inadequately preparing educators to effectively teach African American learners and other students of color. I will show that to effectively address the problem of disproportionality, researchers, practitioners and  policymakers must place inequitable educational resource allocation, inappropriate curriculum and pedagogy and inadequate teacher preparation at the center of education research, policy, and practice. Significance of the Study There is much significance for this study. Being a special education teacher I have seen many students come to me because they were a behavioral problem during their elementary years. I believe it is our responsibility to find a solution to this growing problem. First, we as educators, we need to find out if this race of students are get misplaced in the educational system. These students not getting a proper education are causing a negative effect on their entire life. This causes this particular group to have to depend on state aid and weakens the workforce. Secondly, we need to find out if there is a problem with teacher preparedness. If this is a problem we need to figure out what can be done in state colleges and universities to solve these problems. Would adding a more ethically diverse curriculum better prepare teachers to educate African American students? The majority of the teachers coming out of college will be spending there first few years teaching intercity kids, with the majority being African Americans. Finally we need to educate or children to be reliable productive citizens. I feel that these children are not being given an equal shot at being productive if they are being thrown in the special education class in the back of the building. We already know there is a problem, now we need to work together to find a solution that will best benefit the students. Definition of Terms Disproportionate numbers: Having greater representation within a subgroup  compared to the number of students in the population as a whole. Some researchers use plus or minus 10% to determine proportionality (Harry Anderson, 1994). Discrimination The ability to make or perceive distinction; discernment. Partiality, or bias, in the treatment of a person or group, which is unfair, illegal, etc(Loren Orfield, 2002). It is my opinion that African American children are being placed in special Education because of biases unfair grouping. High Achieving: School-wide trajectory of API (if in California) and Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) growth over three years of all subgroups. There must also be a minimum movement of two deciles within 3-5 years. ] Special Education: Services and supports designed to minimize the impact of disability and maximize opportunity to grow and learn (Hehir, 2007). Limitation, Delimitation and Assumptions Limitations of Study The limitations of this study would be to find willing participates, because of the reasons I have discussed earlier parents will be willing to admit that their child was placed in special education because of a lack of knowledge on their part. Another limitation that will affect them outcome of this research is because I am directly employed in the parish that I have chosen to do research. This position will limit the effectiveness of my research because of student privacy and my position in the parish. It is also my opinion that school districts will not want to release information that could possible be used against them. As stated before I think students of color or being illegal classified as students with special needs and placed in special education. These are a few factors that could limit my study. Delimitations of the Study  External validity may be effected based on the number of student/parents being interviewed. Validate may be effected due to other minority races not being included in the study. Also the size and school locations may limit my ability to get adequate data to fully prove my hypothesis. The small sample population was feasible for my research rather then venturing out into larger areas. This is significant in that the findings may not be applicable to other schools. Assumptions of the Study References Artiles, A. J. (2003). Special education’s changing identity: Paradoxes and dilemmas in views of culture and space. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 164-202. Artiles, A. J. , Rueda, R. , Salazar, J. J. , Higareda, I. (2005). Within-group diversity in minority disproportionate representation: English language learners in urban school districts. Exceptional Children, 71, 283-300. Billingsley, B. (2004). Special education teachers’ retention and attrition: A critical analysis of the research literature. Remedial and Special Education, 25, 22-39. Blair, C. , Scott, K. G. (2002). Proportion of LD placements associated with low socio-economic status: Evidence for gradient. Journal of Special Education, 36, 14-22. Blanchett, W. J. , Mumford, V. , Beachum, F. (2005). Urban school failure and disproportionality in a post-Brown era. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 70-81. Chamberlain, S. P. (2005). Issues of overrepresentation and educational equity for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 110-113. Countinho, M. J. , Oswald, D. P. , Best, A. M. (2002). The influence of sociodemographics and gender on the disproportionate identification of minority students as having learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 49-59. Coutinho, M. J. , Oswald, D. P. , Best, A. M. , Forness, S. R. (2002). Gender and sociodemographic factors and the disproportionate identification of culturally and linguistically diverse students with emotional disturbance. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 109-125. Eitle, T. M. (2002). Special education or racial segregation: Understanding variation in the representation of Black students in educable mentally handicapped programs. The Sociological Quarterly, 43(4), 575-605. Elhoweris, H. , Mutua, K. , Alsheikh, N. , Holloway, P.(2005). Effect of children’s ethnicity on teachers’ referral and recommendation decisions in gifted and talented programs. Remedial and Special Education, 26(1), 25-31. Ferri, B. A. , Connor, D. J. (2005). In the shadow of Brown: Special education and overrepresentation of students of color. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 93-100. Hosp, J. L. , Hosp, M. K. (2002). Behavior differences between African American and Caucasian students: Issues for assessment and intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 336-350. Hosp, J. L. , Reschly, D. J. (2002). Predictors of restrictiveness of placement of African American and Caucasian students. Exceptional Children, 14, 20-34. Hosp, J. L. , Reschly, D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention and assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education, 37, 67-81. Hosp, J. L. , Reschly, D. J. (2004). Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Academic, demographic and economic predictors. Exceptional Children, 70, 185-199. Kurlaender, M. , Yun, J. T. (2007). Measuring school racial composition and student outcomes in a multiracial society. American Journal of Education, 113, 213-235. Neal, L. V. , McCray, A. D. , Webb-Johnson, G. , Bridgest, S. T. (2003). The effects of African American movement styles on teachers’ perceptions and reactions. Journal of Special Education, 37, 49-57. O’Connor, C. (2002). Black women beating the odds from one generation to the next: How the changing dynamics of constraint and opportunity affect the process of educational resilience. American Educational Research Journal, 39, 855-903. Park, J. , Turnball, A. P. , Turnball, H. R. , III (2002). Impacts of poverty on quality of life in families of children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68, 151-170. Shealey, M. W. , Lue, M. S. , Brooks, M. , McCray, E. (2005). Examining the legacy of Brown: The impact on special education and teacher practice. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 113-121. Skiba, R. J. , Michael, R. S. , Nardo, A. C. , Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban Review, 34, 317-342. Skiba, R. J. , Poloni-Staudinger, L. , Gallini, S. , Simmons, A.B. , Feggins-Azziz, R. (2006). Disparate access: The disproportionality of African American students with disabilities across educational environments. Exceptional Children, 72, 411-424. Skiba, R. J. , Poloni-Staudinger, L. , Simmons, A. B. , Feggins-Azziz, L. R. , Chung, C. G. (2005). Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education? Journal of Special Education, 39, 130-144. Zhang, D. , Katsiyannis, A. (2002). Minority representation in special education: A persistent challenge. Remedial and Special Education, 21, 180-187.

Evolution of Advertising

Evolution of Advertising Solomon Asad Advertisements have an astounding power and ability to influence peoples opinions and ideas of the world. In the late 19th century, with the socio-cultural and economic shift from producer to consumer economy, advertisements began to play a major role in the consumerist society of the United States. Advertising responded to evolving business demands, media technologies and cultural frameworks, all in hopes of making products more appealing to consumers. Before the turn of the century, company ads targeted customer nostalgia, which at the time was very dominant in gaining product attention[1]. As time progressed, ads drastically changed. By the turn of the century modern advertisements emerged with executive advertisers, like Edward Bernays, who indulged in ads appealing to extravagance and leisure[2]. Advertisements evolved from portraying objective information to subjective depictions in order to evoke the hopes and anxieties of consumers, basing purchases more on desire rather than need. Customer values shifted due to various reasons between the 19th and 20th centuries, leading people to purchase less necessities and more desirable products, thus causing dramatic advertisement shifts in both form and function in order to optimize companies profits. Advertisements from 1880s to the early 1900s primarily performed to promote goods for consumers and provide them with a need for their product. As new modes of transportation were developed during this time period to deliver physical items and ideas across the country, companies issued nationwide broadcasting for their products. Regarding more important and higher quality company products, newspapers, billboards and other signs were utilized for commercializing these since they would be optimally advertised in general stores throughout the nation. At the time, these ads in particular focused on consumers limited to purchasing solely necessities. Therefore, promoting its products qualities over competitors. The Model K vehicle advertisement stresses its first-class mechanics with its bold title, The Fully-Finished Car which advocates for higher quality over competing products[3]. However, such ads along with, Will your car do this? fail to effectively endorse their products due to ext ensive information that disregards concern for competitors[4]. Both advertisements are text-reliant, with the exception of a single image, and limit their market due to their advertisements description only providing information about the product particular mechanics; therefore, failing to provide consumers with engagement or originality. Such advertisements were common during the time period due to the market consisting of consumers who were exclusively of need. Although this form of an ad is of low appeal, it proved effective for its limited market as the consumers needed cars that would be sustainable and required fulfilling information since providing a necessity took priority over desirables. Over time advertisements evolved along with the market and the consumerist economy. During the early and mid-1900s, dramatic changes took effect with ads, especially with automobile ads. The old text-heavy and informative advertisements were replaced with ads portraying numerous colorful images that evoked consumer psyche and emotional connections to company products. With this shift in advertisements, the focus on consumer desires replaced the old form of product promotion. Baker Electrics vehicle ad, Pleasure portrays a significant change from the 19th century to 20th centurys advertisements and is able to present a unique form of vehicles that is not solely limited as a necessity, but instead promotes a luxurious, family-like and endearing essence for future automobiles[5]. Along with Lexington Motor Companys ad, The Motor Car is the Magic Carpet of Modern Times, Baker Electrics advertisement implies a new ideal for automobiles[6]. Lexington Motor Companys ad implies a magical cha racter for automobiles, therefore expanding the market for those who dont own a vehicle through the advertisements unique and engaging personality, as well as promoting vehicles character as that of luxury. At the same time Baker Electrics ad expands the automobile audience to families, allowing for a more inviting market that is not exclusive for certain genders or people. It is during this period that certain companies changed their advertising approach and began to target different groups and implement diversified values for an expansive market. By the 1920s women developed a substantial status among automobile companies and their advertisements, henceforth evolving from basic luxury to a product inducing sex appeal. This advertising development seduced men into buying certain vehicles that commercials would promote, as it appeared for consumers that women preferred particular products. Ford Motor Company released an ad in 1928, Buy your Wife a Ford, which suggests a wife will be happier and more loving if bought a Ford automobile[7]. Buick, in 1931, also promoted a similar advertisement that marketed its brand as a fashionable and for the wealthy product, with bold words, Wherever fashion and character reign there you will find the Eight as Buick builds it, under a portrayal of an affluent woman.[8] By implementing women in advertisements, not only do automobile companies expand their markets, but also develop their products as luxury, therefore making their vehicles the necessity for the wealthy, and the desire for middle and lower class. However, the aforementioned, necessity for the wealthy no longer truly applies as a need. Instead it represents the difference in class by the automobile brand one owns. Therefore, the development of a need is no longer desired to encourage consumers to purchase products. Automobile advertisers utilized this understanding to appeal to the public on a more emotional level in order to develop a larger target market. It was understood that the more consumers purchased based off desire, the more they bought based off of emotions[9]. With colored and illustrated advertisements influencing emotional appeals, the market was able to be manipulated through the promotion of luxury of a brand with vivid depictions, therefore separating motor companies from outdated advertisements. Therefore, expanding the potential market and creating a luxury ideal encompassing the industry, and further attracting more consumers. Automobile industries have adapted significantly and successfully along with the fluctuating consumerist economy of the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Originally producing bland informative product descriptions as company advertisements, the automobile industry expanded fruitfully with illustrations, emotional appeals and successful techniques adaptable to the market leading towards a growing business where advertisements became more enjoyable, understandable and engaging for numerous groups of consumers. Through altering the form and function of advertisements, advertisers were able to focus on different aspects and ideals for products in order to keep up with the ever changing consumer market. Bibliography Dr. Katarina Keane, HIST289R Lecture Series, Commercialized Leisure at the Turn of the Century, 2016 Dr. Katarina Keane, HIST289R Lecture Series, Selling in America: New Advertising and Marketing, 2016 Winton Motor Carriage Co., The Fully-Finished Car, 1905. J. Walter Thompson, Co., Will Your Car Do This? c. 1900. Baker Electrics, Pleasure, c. 1910. Lexington Motor Company, The Motor Car is the Magic Carpet of Modern Times, ca. 1920. Ford, Buy Your Wife a Ford, 1928. Buick, Wherever Fashion and Character Reign, 1931. Baker Motor Vehicle Co., The Social Prestige of a Baker Electric, 1911. [1] Dr. Katarina Keane, HIST289R Lecture Series, Commercialized Leisure at the Turn of the Century, 2016 [2] Dr. Katarina Keane, HIST289R Lecture Series, Selling in America: New Advertising and Marketing, 2016 [3] Winton Motor Carriage Co., The Fully-Finished Car, 1905. [4] J. Walter Thompson, Co., Will Your Car Do This? c. 1900. [5] Baker Electrics, Pleasure, c. 1910. [6] Lexington Motor Company, The Motor Car is the Magic Carpet of Modern Times, ca. 1920. [7] Ford, Buy Your Wife a Ford, 1928. [8] Buick, Wherever Fashion and Character Reign, 1931. [9] Baker Motor Vehicle Co., The Social Prestige of a Baker Electric, 1911.

Essence Of Decision A Review Politics Essay

Essence Of Decision A Review Politics Essay Graham Allisons Essence of Decision offered alternative conceptual models on foreign policy decision making and a specific discussion on the Cuban missile crisis; and has been one of the influential book in history of foreign policy analysis. It gives a significant contribution to political science study, as it has been heavily cited in most international relations textbook and also discussed by foreign policy analysts. However, despite the models strong influence in foreign policy study, it has been heavily criticised by foreign policy analysts about its utility and value in decision making analysis. In Essence of Decision, Allison proposes three different lenses that offers a multi-level analysis rather than a regular solely system-level to analyse foreign policy decision making. His first model, Unitary Government Model or Rational Actor Model (RAM) explain government as a black box, thus the internal actors have the same goals and opinion on how to achieve the goal. On the other hand, model II and model III will open the black box and discuss at two different things inside the box and later known as bureaucratic politics model. Model II or Organizational Process Model looks at the key organizational or agencies with their own function, mission and structure. Lastly, Model III or Governmental Politics Model will focus on key individual decision makers and the political bargaining process among them. Nonetheless, Allisons conceptual framework has been not only highly praised by foreign policy analysts, but also has been much criticised since its first edition. Number of criticism has risen regarding Allisons conceptual framework, ranging from its originality until the problem of evidences that have been used by Allison in explaining the Cuban Missile Crises. Conford and Horelick, for example, argue that Allisons model is not wholly original work, rather than it is developed from previous study. Moreover, another group of criticism have questioned the account of the Cuban Missile Crises that explained by Allison. Despite these two criticisms, there are number of criticism that will be discussed in the following section. By looking at number of criticism about Allisons model, there is a big question about the usefulness of the model in foreign policy decision making process analysis. This essay aims to evaluate the utility of Allisons conceptual policy in foreign policy decision making. This essay will also critically discuss each of the three models by looking from some perspectives. Moreover, taking into account that this essay relies on Allisons Essence of Decision, this essay will also look at the decision making process regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis. Allisons Conceptual Framework Model I: The Rational Actor (RAM) Model I is the basic yet critical conceptual framework that mostly utilized in foreign policy decision making analysis. RAM is the best model in explaining and predicting of an individual behaviour, as well as purpose generalization in states action. The model reduces the organizational and governmental political complications by looking at government as unified actor.  [1]  Thus, a complete-informed government -regarded as black box- will process information to optimize rational action. The internal structure within decision making process will calculate the potential pro and con and later rank all the options by their chance to succeed.  [2]   Its feature of being easy to utilize, RAM could be useful when a state has limited or even no available information about the enemy. Therefore, since it does not require information to analyse a case, RAM would be very suits in a crisis situation. It would safe more time since a state does not necessary do a complex evaluation about their enemy. Lastly, RAM that stresses interaction among states, will immediately produce prudent decision after considering the pro and con. Its simplicity in analysing a case makes RAM one of the popular methods in foreign policy decision making process. On the other side, some foreign policy analysts argue that in the real foreign policy formation, number of external and individual interest factor will eventually give a big impact. Moreover, RAM tends to ignore a large state with complex bureaucratic nature that has various kinds of departments with their own different political and ideological perspectives.  [3]  Therefore, along with the argument that intra-national factors are very importantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦yet critical when one is concerned with planning policy, Allison has proposed so-called, Bureaucratic Politics Model.  [4]   Model II: Organizational Process Difficulties will arise when the case that are going to be examined is not the behaviour of an individual or a state with simple bureaucracy model, but the behaviour of one organization or government with complex structure inside. Therefore, Allison provides two alternative conceptual frameworks that will open up the black box to evaluate internal structure inside the government, which is later known as Model II and Model III. Model II or Organizational Process Model focuses on the existing organization and their standard operating procedures (SOP) for gaining information, defining possible option and implementing programme.  [5]  Each organization has an agreement for both its mission and function. Afterward, series of program are developed to carry out those missions. In defining feasible option, Model II argues that it is restricted based on SOP that will enhance performance and efficiency. Moreover, Model II is not optimizing rational actor, as model I does, but rather, it is satisfying decision making actors. Its account that foreign policy outcomes are derive from bureaucratic programs, routines and SOP, makes number of advantage from this model. It emphasizes the important domestic political influences on process of foreign policy decision making that sometimes missed out from RAM. Therefore, model II reminds the analysts that the policy was formed not only by a high level decision-maker, but sometimes it is formed by organization.  [6]   Nevertheless, a set of criticism has arisen in the utility of model II. Its emphasis on organisational culture may ill-serve higher level officials and finally can lead to impair the analysts understanding of organizations and their behaviour.  [7]  Even though this kind of problem does not occur for most of the time, but we can take it as a consideration of the effectiveness of the model. Model III: Governmental Politics Governmental politics model or government bargaining model focuses on key individual decision makers with their great influence in deciding on organizational actor. Moreover, the model assumes that decision makers have different perceptions, priorities, commitments and also organizational positions (where you stand depends on where you sit). Therefore, model III assumes that governmental actions are the result of a political bargaining process among key players. Furthermore, bargaining and negotiation processes will result in satisfying rather than optimizing decision making result. It obviously explained because personal ambition of key actor may diverge from public policy position and may lead to personal power considerations when making decision. Between Allisons three conceptual frameworks, model III adds important detail about domestic politics that obviously, cannot be found in model I. In addition, model III not only explains the roles of key individuals, but it also explains why individuals are working at contrary purposes to the interest of the government as a whole. Lastly, model III gives us explanation why policy sometimes appears to be irrational if we look it from a unitary government perspective. Nevertheless, model III also received many critics, especially on the complexity of the model. It is focus on individual key actor that makes it difficult to study and analyse. Moreover, it requires too many variables, some variable are unknown and it is hard to apply for other countries with unclear bureaucratic politics inside. Criticism toward Allisons conceptual framework Allisons conceptual framework has been attacked by number of criticism, varying from the originality of the model, different interpretation of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the US political system, and also methodological criticism. As Stephen D. Krasner has argued that Allisons model à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is misleading, dangerous, and compelling.  [8]  Therefore, in this section, number of criticism of Allisons model will be critically discussed and assessed. Some foreign policy analysts, such as, Cornford, Horelick, Ball and Art claimed that Allison did not present a pure brand new approach to analysing foreign policy process; but rather it just development from previous theories. Conford has claimed that organisational process mode is previously done by writers such as, Simon, March and Simon, Cyert and March.  [9]  Furthermore, Conford has claimed that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Model IIIà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is pure Neustadt.  [10]  Horelick et al.  [11]  supported Confords argument by suggesting that the bureaucratic model is closely related to previous work done by Kremlinologists.  [12]  Ball and Art  [13]  also mentioned names of analyst that originally make the bureaucratic policy model, such as Huntington, Hilsman, Schilling, and Neustadt.  [14]   Nevertheless, Allison has dedicated a section in his book to acknowledge previous scholars that become his foundation in developing his methods. He is fully aware that he utilizes and developed earlier scholars work as he mentioned in his book, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦this encourages much repackaging of existing theoriesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [15]  Therefore, he identifies a group of writers such as March and Simon, Barnard, Cyert and Simon and so on for foundation of model II.  [16]  Furthermore, Allison also acknowledged his intellectual debt to previous scholars that related to model III paradigm,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦model III variety have attracted increasing attention since 1960à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the publication of Presidential Power by Richard E. Neustadt.  [17]  Hence, we could argue that Allisons originality does not lie in his model, but rather in his approach to apply his models consistently to one particular case study, the Cuban Missile Crisis.  [18]   Another criticism can be seen from methodological perspective; numbers of similarities between model II and model III have shaped ambiguity between those two models. In many occasions, some foreign analysts will combine model II and model III to analyse a case study, including Allison himself. In his article with Halperin, Allison combines those two models and become one major model the bureaucratic politics paradigm- as an alternative model to RAM.  [19]  As Conford argues that the three models is not totally incommensurable model to analyse foreign policy making process.  [20]  Therefore, even though Allison distinguishes three kinds of model in foreign policy analysis, those models is not easily separable in their actual application. In bureaucratic politics model, decision is not arise from one unitary actor, but through some bargaining between organisation structures with their own agenda. Model II and model III have identical characteristics that enable them to be grouped as bureaucratic politics model. The two models are similar in a sense that both models focus on departments and organizations inside the decision maker; however, it is slightly different, in a sense that, if model II will reach a decision through Standard Operation Program, model III will make a decision through bargaining between various players within government. Despite the insignificant difference between those models, they are usually combined as the bureaucratic politics model.  [21]   However, Caldwell has raised bureaucratic politics models major problem regarding the use of evidence and data. The model requires detailed data that hardly available in term of quantity and quality. In addition, Caldwell argued that there is huge possibility for analyst to imposing the model on the evidence rather than testing the model against it. Therefore, bureaucratic politics model has significant problem in analysing the data and evidence, since previous empirical problems show that data was made to fit the model.  [22]   Allisons alternative model has also been argued that it eliminated decision-makers responsibility toward the policy. The strong criticism has risen from Steel and Krasner, which argued that no one, even the President, holds responsibility of the policy as the outcome from bargaining process among bureaucratic groups. As Steel argued that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦where everyone is responsible for a decision, no one is responsible.  [23]  The same argument also comes from Krusnet who argued that bureaucratic politic eliminates the importance of election: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Elections are a farce not because the people suffer from false consciousness, but because public officials are impotent, enmeshed in a bureaucracy so large that the actions of government are not responsive to their will.  [24]  In contrast, Smith argues that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦this criticism is only valid to the extent to which the President is unable to get his wishes carried out.  [25]  Therefore, the criticism from Ste el and Kranser is not applicable for all cases and need to be modified. Furthermore, following previous criticism, there is criticism about Allisons model utility to other countries. Even though Allison clearly points out his intention to present two additional frameworks to other countries foreign policy analysis (not only limited to the US and Soviet Unions policy making)  [26]  , a group of writers has argued the inability of the model to analyse foreign policy behaviour in other countries, to be precise, un-industrialized countries. As Hill has noted that there is a growing consensusà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦over the inapplicability of the insights of Allison, et al. to foreign policy-making inside less modernised states.  [27]  Migdal has also argued that the model cannot be applied to the countries that do not have stability of organizational structure, routine, and even bargaining process.  [28]  Moreover, Brenner also argues that Allisons model is not a universal model and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦more distinctive in the United States than elsewhere.  [ 29]  Despite all criticisms regarding its utility to other countries, Weil has proved, in fact, the model could be utilised in the North Vietnamese foreign policy analysis. As Weil notes that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦examining North Vietnamese foreign policy decision making from a governmental politics perspective complements understanding gained from a rational actor analysis.  [30]   Nevertheless, analists argued that the model is not even applicable to the Soviet Union, although the Soviet Union foreign policy has been heavily discussed in Essence of Decision. It is not only because the model requires more specific information than is available, but also as Dawisha has noted that the bureaucracy in some countries (e.g. the Soviet Union) is fundamentally different from its position in the United States because the persistent influence of the Communist Party.  [31]  Therefore, there is a doubt about the utility of Allisons model in other countries, as Wagner has pointed out, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the extension of Allisons model III to other countries may be a less straightforward enterprise than he implies.  [32]   Singapores defence posture change in the early 1980s In the early 1980s, Singapore announces a major important change in its defence policy, from a defensively deterrent strategy (poisonous shrimp) to a more actively deterrent strategy (known as the porcupine). In an article done by Pak Shun Ng, he applies Allisons model to analyse Singapores domestic decision making process. Pak Shun Ng treats Singapore as unitary rational actor to utilizing model I (RAM); the military organisations as the unit of analysis for model II; lastly, the military and political party leadership (including senior military leaders and civilian leaders of Singapores ruling party, the Peoples Action Party (PAP)) as units of analysis for model III.  [33]  The article argues that model II and model III provide the most reasonable explanation of the change in Singapores defence position in the 1980s; while model I has failed to fully explain the change. Model II first reveals the appropriate development of both Singapores military capability and military planni ng ability. Furthermore, model III then prove details how the Singapore Armed Force (SAF) could announce the change convincingly to improve its stature among Singaporeans and foreigners by persuasive them that Singapore has appropriate capability to defend and survive any potential threat.  [34]  Even though the article heavily honours the utility of Allisons model, but it still proposes modification of the models in order to be able to analyse a decision making process in a small and non-western states under absence of crisis condition. Furthermore, the case study of Singapores policy making shows the evidence of model II and III complete each other and make one alternative model against RAM, namely, the bureaucratic politic model. Therefore, it supports the criticism that previously discussed that Allisons models, especially model II and III, have strong similarities and hardly separate. The utility of Allisons model also can be tested in the US foreign policy in Iran hostage crisis in 1979. The bureaucratic politics model is applicable in analysing the decision making process under President Carter administration. The key group in Carters government consisted of number individual who have important position in the executive branch, and also political outsiders that rarely well known, yet have close personal relations to the President. Within the key group that were known as the Georgia mafia, there are two closest advisors for the President; the chief of staff, Hamilton Jordan and Carters press secretary, Jody Powell. Even though these two advisors are not familiar in politic and foreign policy process, they were loyal and intelligent. When sixty American were taken hostage at the American embassy in Iran on 4 November 1979, the initial response from Carter is criticised to be quite slow. On 11 November, the US gave economy sanction by initiating embargo of Iranian oil. While the economy sanction was undertaken, there were ongoing debates about the next step dealing with the crisis. There were two major options; a commando raid to rescue hostages and outright air strikes and military blockades.  [35]  Here we can clearly see how each faction in the government has their own argument to propose to the President is clearly explained by Allisons bureaucratic politics model. A strong debate was occurred between Secretary of State, Cyrus Vance; National Security Advisor, Zbigniew Brzenzinsky and Carters inner circle, Powell and Jordan. Vance was explicitly being in opposition to any military action after considering that American allies would not tolerate such behaviour. Therefore, he believed that the national security of the US could be maintained without endangering the lives of sixty American citizens.  [36]  On the other side, Brzezinsky strongly opposed military measure as the best means to protect Americas vital interests.  [37]  Moreover, the argument was supported by the director of the CIA, Stanfield Turner, after considering the CIAs best estimates that 60 percent of the hostages could be killed as a result of very complex rescue process. These two faction also argued that they are responsible for the national security, roughly 250 million Americans, and they couldnt simply compromised for the sake of sixty hostages. The final faction c ame from Carters inner circle, including Powell and Jordan, who were concern about the impact of Iran hostage crisis on upcoming election in 1981. The President concurred Vances opinion that a negotiated settlement would be the best for maintaining both national interest and national security. As the response of Carters decision, he received public support, which is important for the upcoming election. However, after considering the effectiveness of the plan, Powell and Jordan opposed the President for tough action against Iranians, again, in order to win the election. In the end, with strong pressure from some faction and absence of Vance in decision making process at the time, Carter called for an immediate military rescues on April 11. The military rescue plan ended in failure with crash of number of helicopters and planes; and killing eight US servicemen. Finally, in 1981s election, Reagan came into power and selesai lah sudah This illustrates the absence of one faction who opposes one specific argument could impact the decision making process as a whole.

Cognitive Traditions and Communities in Technological Change :: Technology Essays

Cognitive Traditions and Communities in Technological Change ABSTRACT: Many efforts have been made to discover some paradigm-like changes in mathematics, the social sciences, arts, history, etc. Gary Gutting forcefully criticizes the tendency of over-constraining the original conception that mostly led to insignificant analogies. But some applications may fall between correct isomorphic utilization and insignificant analogizing. The paradigm conception of technological change emerged in the early 1980's. This paper shows how fruitful the analogy has been for developing the idea of technological 'paradigms.' But a technological paradigm shows decisive differences which concern the values (which are not only cognitive ones) of technologies, the hierarchical systemic communities, the partly different nature of crises (through 'presumptive anomalies,' by Constant), and the necessarily integrated nature of technological knowledge leading to successful artifacts linked to goal-oriented research. Technological-paradigms-thinking became an established part of evolutionary economics also. According to this, paradigms rival conceptions that show further changes in comparison to the original Kuhnian approach. I conclude by discussing the nature of scientific change from the viewpoint of technological paradigms. Following Kuhn's seminal work paradigms were claimed to be discovered in many scientific fields including sociology, economics, psychology, mathematics, even literature, arts and history. It is well known that Kuhn himself was astonished to see that, for him unexpected, escalation. Garry Gutting rightly emphasized 198O that most of the applications of the paradigm conception led to nowhere but to insignificant, relatively trivial analogies, to assertions that "supertheories" exist. (1) But some application may have overcome trivial analogies. The story of technological "paradigms" is one case for this. The trial to apply the paradigm conception to technological change came 1O-15 years later then the applications to other fields. (2) In an important case study for history of technology (published 198O), E. W. Constant II set up a general model for technological change. (3) In this model technological change is represented by knowledge change and put into an evolutionary epistemology perspective, overtaken from D. Campbell. Constant exploits philosophy of science, mainly Kuhn's paradigm conception. He finds a community structure in technological practice, traditions of practice, normal technology with its puzzle solving character and technological changes initiated by recognizing two types of failure. He claims that, from time to time, technological changes are technological revolutions. "We define a technological paradigm as an accepted mode of technical operation. . . . It is the conventional system as defined and accepted by a relevant community of technological practitioners.

Conduct Unbecoming by Barry England :: Conduct Unbecoming Military England Essays

Conduct Unbecoming by Barry England Conduct Unbecoming revolves around two important yet very different characters; Drake and Millington. They are both new to the army but have very different views of the regiment. When they first enter ‘the mess’ Drake looks about ‘as a man finally at peace’ Whereas Millington looks with gloom. Drake starts ‘Exactly as I imagined it would be’ whereas Millington launches straight into sarcasm with ‘how very uplifting for you.’ He makes a point that the place ‘haunted his childhood’, showing us that not only does he hate it but he has also been there before. We now know that he already has some connection with the regiment. When Drake says ‘it is like†¦coming home’ Millington replies with ‘isn’t it, though?’ We then find out that Millington’s father was in fact the colonel of the regiment until 1881. Drake obviously is in awe of the regiment and couldn’t be happier that h e’s there. He tells Millington ‘You will find only military honours here. These are past colonels and holders of the Victoria Cross. That is the regimental tradition.’ This shows how dedicated he is (that he’s learnt all this.) He then comments in a rather snobby way ‘I think I should warn you Millington, that while I might, through force of circumstance, tolerate your imbecilities throughout our voyage together, you will find that they are not appreciated here’. Millington then tells Drake â€Å"I have no intention whatever of surviving my probationary period. There is a ship, the Doric castle, which sails for England in almost exactly three months to the day from now. I intend to be on her.† Showing that not only does Millington dislike the place but he has already got a plan, how he is going to get out of the regiment. We discover when Millington comments to Pradah Singh (the waiter) â€Å"I fancy I could do great service to a large whiskey and soda†¦Ã¢â‚¬  showing that he likes his drink, Drake quickly remarks â€Å"We may neither order nor accept drinks until we are properly introduced into the mess.† Drake is showing Pradah Singh how responsible he is and that he has really studied the rules of the regiment. When at last the Junior Sub arrives he asks if they Drake and Millington would like a drink. Millington jumps in with â€Å"†¦Just anything. I’m about to expire.† (More evidence that he likes to drink regularly) but Drake saves him by sucking up to the Junior Sub, saying â€Å"My companion is joking of course.

Inquiry Based Science Instruction Using Science Fair Projects Essay

In order to fully develop critical thinking skills necessary to function in the world of science, and the world in general, science teachers must incorporate more robust authentic inquiry activities, as part of their overall science curriculum. However, in my experience as a science teacher (18 years) and a science program director (3 years) in inner-city high schools in Boston, students do not have the opportunity to engage in robust authentic inquiry activities. Using my years’ experience in the public education system, it is clear to me that factors, such as teachers’ inadequate content knowledge, lack of motivation to implement inquiry, pressure to teach to high stake standardized tests, lack of experience conducting scientific research, and belief systems, hamper their ability and willingness to implement robust inquiry activities as part of their teaching. As a result, students suffer by not only missing the opportunity to fully engage in authentic inquiry, but also become unmotivated to engage in scientific research and or pursue scientific careers. The most effective means by which to overcome this authentic inquiry deficit is through the implementation of science fair projects, which go beyond traditional â€Å"cookbook lab† teaching methodologies. And while I am fully cognizant of the fact that my experience in this matter is biased based upon the workings of the Boston inner-city school system only, academics, such as Thienhuong Hoang, agree that science fair allow students to conduct scientific experiments thereby engaging them in inquiry process, rather than only allowing them to learn concepts. 2010) Inquiry and the Science Fair Project For decades, inquiry has been the focus of science teaching. The National Research Council (NRC), for example, refers to inquiry as the central strategy for teaching science‚ (1996), and defines inquiry as â€Å"the diverse way in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence derived from their work. † (1996) In addition, NRC notes that inquiry seeks to create opportunities for learners to engage in science and to build an in-depth understanding based on their previous ideas and experiences. Further, NRC recommends that teachers engage students in inquiry asking scientific questions, using evidence in responding to questions, formulating explanations from evidence, connecting explanations to scientific knowledge, and communicating and justifying findings. (2000) I fully concur with the position of NRC regarding inquiry, and have, throughout both my prior teaching career and current position as a science program director, included and required teachers to include inquiry – and particularly science fair – as the foundation of their teaching. As a result, students have achieved deeper content knowledge and broader understanding of scientific processes. Inquiry through science fair projects, rather than traditional â€Å"cookbook lab† methods of science teaching and learning, in which students follow a predetermined protocol and the results of the experiment are known in advance, allow students to more fully engage in critical thinking and learning. Further, only inquiry – and specifically science fair – helps students better develop and understand the need to engage in probing questions to scientific problems. This, in turn, affords students increased opportunities to propose and develop their own methodologies, and increases their scientific literacy skills. Thus, science fair projects are a key link between science education and the work of scientists in real life. An aspect of scientists’ work that I believe is crucial for students to acquire is the significance of ethics and conclusions based on data collected through scientific research, due to the potential implication of the scientist’s work on society. For example, the racial classification in the early 18th century of the superiority and inferiority of races, which became part of the Western racial ideology, was the result of scientific research involving different human characteristics, which was later determined to be falsified. (Carlton, 2008) Similarly, western gender stereotypes have biased historical research of gender studies in the south (Fennell and Arnot, 2008); thereby rendering such research limited in its historical significance and material use. Thus, exposing students to authentic scientific inquiry via science fair projects is not only necessary to the student’s academic success, it is, in my opinion, a vital component of the development of critical thinking skills necessary to separate authentic scientific data and research results from potentially questionable results; like the superiority/inferiority of different races and other biases. Teacher Beliefs and Experience  Teachers’ actions in the classroom tend to reflect their own belief systems. This holds true both in my own experience working in the field of education, and other academics. For as Wallace and Kang note in their article â€Å"An Investigation of Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Beliefs About Inquiry: An Examination of Competing Beliefs Sets†, â€Å"what a teacher actually does in the classroom is representative of her beliefs. (2004) Additionally, in conducting research for their article â€Å"White Male Teachers on Differences: Narratives of Contact and Tensions†, Jupp and Slattery note the comments of one of the participants in the research project as stating â€Å"†¦teachers are certainly biased against certain children, especially if they don’t know them, and often are surprised at the amount of intelligence and cultural awareness of minority children who have been raised in quote-unquote the right way, you know, the middle class family type of situation†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2010) A teacher holding this ideology, for example, is likely to engage students in an inferior level of inquiry because the teacher’s assumption is that such students are incapable of critical thinking. Jupp and Slattery also noted in the interview of participants (Ibid), â€Å"†¦you can see that people are going out of their way to be sure that students don’t feel divorced from the curriculum†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This translates to teachers’ beliefs that if the emphasis is placed on inquiry – and specifically science fair projects, which requires a great deal of time – it will be at the expense of teaching for high stake standardized tests. Finally, Wallace and Kang, (2004) in their article â€Å"An Investigation of Experienced Secondary Science Teachers’ Beliefs About Inquiry: An Examination of Competing Beliefs Sets†, note that the teacher’s knowledge, or lack thereof, dictates his or her actions in the classroom. 2004) Therefore, it is clear to me – both in my own experiences in the field of education and based upon the literature – the possession of strong content knowledge, as well as research and science teaching e xperience, is essential to the effective teaching of inquiry, since a teacher that possesses this necessary skill set is better equipped to help students develop their ideas through probing at a deeper level. The use of science fair projects, therefore, is a key bridge in this knowledge gap, since science fair allows students the ability to conduct their own scientific research and develop their own scientific hypotheses. Barriers to Inquiry Studies show that there exist many barriers affecting the implementation of inquiry. For example, Trautmann, MaKinster, and Avery, in their article â€Å"What Makes Inquiry so Hard (And Why is it Worth it? )†, cite that the main reason teachers are reluctant to implement inquiry stems from the need to be efficient. 2004) Teachers feel they have to choose between teaching facts which students later regurgitate on standardized tests, and teaching with a focus on in-depth learning, which is more effectively attained through inquiry – and specifically through science fair projects. Trautmann, MaKinster and Avery also noted that the pressure placed upon teachers and schools to prepare students for high stake standardized tests impedes the implementation of inquiry in science classes. (Ibid) As a result, science teachers feel the need to maintain control of their classroom, as a method of controlling the curriculum required for standardized tests, rather than allow students to work independently on science fair projects. Another obstacle hampering the implementation of authentic scientific inquiry teaching – and specifically the implementation of science fair projects – is that teachers have a tendency to employ the same teaching strategies as the ones they experienced as students. (Davis, 2003) As such, they resist change and miss the opportunity to be innovative in their teaching by incorporating inquiry into their curriculum – especially with respect to science fair projects. Further, teacher training, in general, does not offer an effective model for the practice of science instruction based on inquiry. As a consequence, teachers are limited in their ability to carry out authentic inquiry, in general, in their classrooms. This inability to teach via authentic inquiry prohibits them from adopting science fair projects as part of their curriculum.